Historical Account of Tragedy in Literature

Historical Account of Tragedy in Literature The chorus in Aeschylus Agamemnon clearly elucidates the Aristotelian principle of tragedy: Zeus, whose will has marked for man the sole way where wisdom lies, ordered one eternal plan: Man must suffer to be wise. Elizabethan tragedy is derived from this moralised model of tragedy as depicted by Aristotle in his Poetics. As a genre, Elizabethan tragedy is distinguished from that of Shakespeare, although Shakespeares tragedies are often held as the epitome of the tragic form. Indeed, the Oxford English Dictionary cites only two quotations from the Renaissance under the entry for tragedy, both of which are from Shakespeare. There appears to be a deliberate judgment in including Shakespeare in the dramatic cannon to the exclusion of such influential playwrights as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Heywood and John Webster. Although it is clear that Shakespeare made an important contribution to the development of modern tragedy, derived from classical models, contemporary dramatists were much more formative in negotiating Aristotelian models of tragedy with the new philosophical, social and political climate of the Renaissance. Philips Sidneys defence of the tragic form in An Apologie for Poetrie (1595) articulates the moral and didactic purpose of poetry. So that the right vse of Comedy will (I thinke) by no body be blamed, and much lesse of the high and excellent Tragedy; that openeth the greatest wounds, and sheweth forth the Vlcers, that are couered with Tissues: that maketh Kinges feare to be Tyrants, and Tyrants manifest their tirannicall humors: that with stirring the affects of admiration and commiseration, teacheth, the vncertainety of this world, and vpon howe weake foundations guilden roofes are built (Sidney F3v-F4) The emphasis on moral instruction is clear, and informed the tragic form in the both Shakespearean and non-Shakespearean dramas. Tragedy, according to Aristotle, is noble and concerned with lofty matters, as opposed to the flippant and crude nature of comedy. Sidney defines the function of tragedy as uncovering the greatest wounds of the inherently weake foundations of the world. Tragedy, therefore, produces an emotional response in the audience by exposing human flaws, which allows them to participate in a form of moral regeneration. Thomas Heywoods An Apology for Actors (1612) also cites the classical model of tragedy in order to elevate English drama in general by accentuating the morally instructive nature of tragedy, as well as to tie his own works to the legitimate tradition of tragedy. If we present a Tragedy, we include the fatall and abortiue ends of such as commit notorious murders, which is aggrauated and acted with all the Art that may be, to terrifie men from the like ab horred practises (Heywood F3v). Heywood thus believes that the tragic downfall of the moral, but flawed, hero is a terrifying lesson to the audience through the pity and fear evoked by watching the play itself, a notion described by Aristotle and termed by modern scholars as catharsis. Despite Heywoods belief in the moral power of tragedy, Renaissance tragedy, for the most part, does not live up to the Aristotelean model. For Stephen Greenblatt (1980), Renaissance theatre, named after a queen whose power is constituted in theatrical celebrations of royal glory and theatrical violence visited upon the enemies of that glory, replays the process of provoking subversion central to the states authorization of its own power: the form itself, as a primary expression of Renaissance power, contains the radical doubts it continually produces (297). Thus, any echo of Aristotelian notions of tragedy in the works of playwrights such as Heywood, Marlowe, Webster, and even Shakespeare, can be seen not as a insistence upon the dramatic perfection of classical forms, but as a means of lending legitimacy to the challenge to political and cultural structures. As Moretti (1982) observed in respect of English Renaissance tragedy one of the decisive influences in the creation of a â€Å"public† that for the first time in history assumed the right to bring a king to justice †¦ Tragedy disentitled the absolute mo narch to all ethical and rational legitimation. Having deconsecrated the king, it thus made it possible to decapitate him (7-8). Rather than reinforcing the social order and legitimizing divine ordination, tragedy opened up the political elite to the possibility of human frailty. Renaissance tragedy can be defined as a violent series of events that is built upon the murder and revenge, concerning characters primarily motivated by jealousy, greed, and anger. According to Aristotle, the tragic hero must be of noble stature, and while his greatness is readily apparent, he is not perfect. Tragedies often concern the aristocratic elite and thus personal tragedies extend to tragedies of state. The tone of the play is sombre, clearly relating the grief and sorrow of the characters themselves. This â€Å"language of lamentation† serves as a warning against the destructive potential of vice and depravity, and can be linked to the Medieval morality plays. Although the presence of othe r non-dramatic sources conceives a national tradition of tragedy which was established on the English stage as early as 1587, with the performance of Thomas Kyds The Spanish Tragedy. Both The Spanish Tragedy and Marlowes Tamburlaine, performed in the late 1580s, exhibit the beginnings of true Renaissance tragedy. Derived from the revenge plays of Seneca, The Spanish Tragedy is a play which satisfied the Aristotelian need for a binary model of moral order, which is complicated by the relations of individual justice to the social and divine order. Tamburlaine, however, moves away from the reductive moralising of earlier poetry and reflects the influence of the Reformation on the dramatic arts, as the theatre established a new place where human possibilities could be envisioned with new freedom. Marlowe is fully aware that he is making the stage the vehicle of a new consciousness: Onely this (Gentlemen) we must performe, The form of Faustus fortunes good or bad. To patient Iudgements we appeale our plaude. (Marlowe, Faustus, 7-9) This appeal to the moral purpose of the play is misleading, for neither Faustus nor Tamberlaine are characters directed by their moral choices. Tamberlaine, it is arguable, is an agent of God while at the same time exercising his free will with no apparent consequence. Marlowe appears to be addressing familiar issues of blasphemous defiance, tyranny, cruelty and arrogance in Tamburlaine, but ironically he presents these issues as the glory of the tragic hero. Unlike traditional tragedies, there is no stable moral framework, with the result that the audience is left feeling uneasy with the divine implications of the heros downfall. Tamburlaine, rather than submit to his pre-ordained fate, boasts of his own dynamic power: I hold the Fates bound fast in yron chaines, And with my hand turne Fortunes wheel about (369-70) Fate and Fortune, two of the most conventional symbols of human limitation, are here manipulated by the hero not as a sign of his hubris, but rather as a heroic achievement. Marlowe uses this gross inversion as a reflection of the changing values in Renaissance society. As Stephen Greenblatt (1980) says, Marlowe writes in the period in which European man embarked on his extraordinary career of consumption, his eager pursuit of knowledge, with one intellectual model after another seized, squeezed dry, and discarded, and his frenzied exhaustion of the worlds resources (199). The Enlightenment saw the questioning of fundamental assumptions about mans place in the world, a uncertainty reflected in the ambiguous relation between the tragic hero and his divinely ordained fate. C. L. Barber (1988) has commented on the way in which the audience engages with such egotistic individualism of the tragic hero, noting the role of the triumphal individual in the Renaissance and the significance of individualistic prophesying as a disruptive form of expression that challenged the authority and legitimacy of the Church and state. Marlowe writes at a time of religious transition and new philosophical notions of self-consciousness, and appropriates religious language and symbolism to launch an attack on the Church. Tamburlaine rebels against divine, political and social order, and in doing so sets himself beyond limitation and definition, alwaiies moouing as the restles Spheares (876). Tamburlaines rebellion is an uneasy one, for there is no possibility of reconciliation and restoration of order. Theridama, the Chiefest Captain of Mycetes hoste, reveals this as he says: Tamburlaine? A Scythian Shepheard, so imbelished With Natures pride, and richest furniture, His looks do menace heauen an dare the Gods †¦ What stronge enchantments tice my yielding soule? †¦ Won with they words, conquered with thy looks, I yield my selfe, my men horse to thee (350-52, 419, 423-4) Liberation is here figured as one of two choices: to reject the divine or to take it over. In Tamburlaines case, he alternatively threatens heaven and dares the gods, or claims identity with the divine to sanction his violence: til by vision, or by speech I heare / Immortall Ioue say, Cease my Tamburlaine, / I will persist a terrour to the world †¦ (3873-75). Tamburlaine self-aggrandizement is given divine legitimacy: Tamburlaine believes that his tyranny and martial lust are condoned through the gods through their silence. The two-part Tamburlaine is based on the historical figure of Timur, a bloody conqueror of Asia, whose greed for power and extravagance culminates with his inevitable downfall. Tamburlaine deviates from the tragic norm in his depiction of the tragic hero; Tamburlaine is not humbled by his dramatic fall, and no moral lesson is learned and repentance achieved. Tamburlaine does not conform to the model of the tragic hero set out in Poetics. The tragic hero is fated to make a serious error which will cause his fall and tragic death, usually caused by hubris, or prideful arrogance, but he remains likeable to the audience for his inherent goodness. Tamburlaine, in contrast, is a character whose goodness is notably absent. In contrast the Aristotlean model, in which the tragic hero is noble from birth, Tamburlaine is an obscure Scythian shepherd in the opening of part 1. He quickly ascends through his bravery and his eloquent speech, and his ferocity on the battlefield. Tamburlaine sees him self as the scourge of God and even dreams of leading his armies in war against the divine army in heaven. In a scene in which Tamburlaine has defeated Cosroe, he responds to Cosroes demands for the reasons behind his treachery. Nature, that framd us of four elements Warring within our breasts for regiment, Doth teach us all to have aspiring minds: Our souls, whose faculties can comprehend The wondrous architecture of the world, And measure every wandering planets course, Still climbing after knowledge infinite, And always moving as the restless spheres, Wills us to wear ourselves and never rest, Until we reach the ripest fruit of all, That perfect bliss and sole felicity, The sweet fruition of an earthly crown. (I.iv. 13-29) With this final line Tamburlaine snatches the crown from dying Cosroes head and places it on his own head, assuming the power of divine legitimacy for himself. Reordering the humours as in constant opposition, rather than harmonious order, is to legitimize his own militaristic behaviour as part of the natural world. He is, in essence, creating himself out of nothing, as he became an emperor from a shepherd, and as such is taking over the divine role of creation. In doing so, he upsets the authority of the moral order, and even his death does not resolve the moral hierarchy. Thomas Heywoods A Woman Killed with Kindness (1603) is described as a domestic tragedy as it deals not with the tragic downfall of the elite, but on the relationship between a husband and wife. Domesticity is the theme of the play, and the language is correspondingly straightforward and unadorned. In contrast with tragedies such as Hamlet or Tamburlaine, Heywoods play does not concern the intrigues and actions of the aristocratic elite or ruling order. A Woman Killed with Kindness is a morality play, concerned with the infidelity of Anne and her likely punishment. She herself expects only death upon her husbands discovery of her affair: Though I deserve a thousand thousand fold More than you can inflict, yet, once my husband, For womanhood – to which I am a shame, Though once an ornament – even for His sake That hath redeemd our couls, mark not my face Nor hack me with your sword, but let me go Perfect and undeformed to my tomb. (xiii.94-100) Her opinion is born out by the tradition of revenge in tragedies as well as in contemporary practice; indeed, by law husbands reserved the right to kill unfaithful wives (Powell 204). However, despite the clear Christian moralizing, Heywoods play departs drastically from the traditional structure of moral tragedy in that the tragic end of the main character results not from divine judgment and retribution, but from the effects of her wrongdoing on her own consciousness. Before the discovery of her betrayal by her husband, her guilt and remorse are apparent. You have tempted me to mischief, Master Wendoll; I have done I know not what. Well, you plead custom; That which for want of wit I granted erst I now must yield through fear. Come, come, lets in. Once oer shoes, we are straight oer head in sin (xi. 110-14) Her repentance is genuine, and carries forward her tragic end. Anne chooses to starve herself to death, thereby taking control both of her sin and her punishment. Heywood puts into dramatic form †¦ the punishment which arises from the erring characters consciousness of their guilt in the place of the punishment of an exterior physical revenge (Bowers 225). Annes emotional torment is meant as a lesson to the audience, and she makes of herself an exemplary figure, breaking away from the domestic thrust of the play towards the universal. Derived from the classical models of comedy and tragedy set out by Aristotle and envisaged by Seneca, Webseters The White Devil (1612) expands the classical tragic structure by adding elements associated with comedy: ironic repetition, theatrical self-consciousness, and inverted tragic situations. There is a repeated pattern in The White Devil of serious action followed by parody, working to undermine the dramatic tradition of tragedy to create what would become the genre of tragicomedy. Tragicomedy is a distinctly non-Aristotelian genre in which the action and subject of the play demand a tragic ending, but this ending is denied in an ironic reversal which produces the happy ending of a traditional comedy. Aristotle did, in fact, depict a kind of tragedy with a happy ending, which would later become tragicomedy, but it was not until the Renaissance that the genre was seen as a legitimate dramatic form. In The White Devil, the Duke of Florence comments on the popular dislike of the c lassically inspired plays which strictly conform to the structure of tragedy and comedy: My tragedy must have some idle mirth int, Else it will never pass (IV.i.119-20) The Dukes comment suggests that an increasingly demanding audience will no longer accept the single-minded classical plays of strict comedy or tragedy, but demand a sophistication of genre. The White Devil is not unique in its admission of tragicomedy, but it is treated as an expression of doubt about the tragic absolutes and as part of a critical double-vision. Incidents are repeated an parodied throughout Websters play, and this system of parallels is used to undermine the tragic status of the patrician characters. In the final scene the tragic hero Flamineo acts out a grotesque fiction of his own death, which is ironically followed by real murder. The farcical ending is paralleled with the authentic tragic image. With its elaborate system of repetition and parody, its ironic contrasts between interpretations of events, and the insistence that every incident is intimately connected with other incidents, The White Devil emphasises the shifting values and ironic double-visions of tragicomedy into the tragic framework of aspiration, failure, and ultimately death, depicting the double standard of the new society. The action of the play is confined to the relatively narrow setting of Rome and the court at Padua, hinting to the world beyond that of stage. Critics have often found the number of characters in The White Devil problematic, citing di fficulties in staging a production with so many bodies on stage. However, John Russell Brown (1940) has called attention to Websters power of using violent and crowded scenes for sudden and, therefore, striking manifestations of an individuals lies or hypocrisy, the â€Å"variety† of a â€Å"busy trade of life† (Brown 453). In the final act, the presence of so many members of the courtly society emphasises Flamineos fall from power, defining the extent of the competition for the Dukes favour and the uncertainty of Flamineos future now that his relationship with his master is ruined. As a young lord reports to Flamineo concerning Bracciano, A new vp-start: one that swears like a Falckner, and will lye in the Dukes eare day by day like a maker of Almanacks (V.i. 138-9). The White Devil deals with private behaviour made public, and public behaviour motivated by questionable private interests. Vittorias trial reveals her illicit liaison with Bracciano and the murderous consequences, but it is this public censure which results in private revenge. In comparison with Shakespearean tragedies such as Hamlet, or classical tragedies such as Oedipus Rex, the play is extremely social and emphasises Websters preoccupation with the intertwined spheres of public probity and private corruption. The White Devil focuses on the individuals freedom of choice between good and evil, human dignity and the fall from grace, binaries which appear to conform to the traditional Christian morality. Lodovico is accused by Antonelli and Gasparo: Worse then these, / You have acted certaine Murders here in Rome, / Bloody and full of horror (I.i.31-32), and Gasparo continues O my Lord / The law doth sometimes mediate, thinkes it good / Not ever to steepe violent sinnes in blood, / This gentle penance may both end your crimes, / And in the example better these bad times (I.i.33-37). Ludovico is presented a choice, but instead turns to criminality and revenge. His crimes have been presented, the possibility of reform and exoneration provided, and yet he wilfully chooses his course of conduct in spite of this. He exercises his free will, but unlike the Aristotelian tragic hero his destructive path is not redemptive in bringing out moral responsibility. The conclusion of The White Devil is ambig uous, fulfilling the catastrophic ending required of tragedy but without the suggestion of the nobility and greatness of man. Flamineo dies in despair of his worldly goods, wealth and advancement rather than in despair of his worthiness before God. There is the possibility of Flamineo accepting moral responsibility directly before his death as he reflects, While we looke up to heaven wee confound / Knowledge with knowledge (V.vi.259-60), and yet immediately before this he said , I doe not looke / Who went before, nor who shall follow mee; / Noe, at my self I will begin and end (V.vi.256-58). Although the play ends with the death of the tragic hero, as tradition dictates, this is not the satisfactory ending of classical tragedies. There is no remorse, no retraction of arrogance and greed in the face of the divine. As A.L. Kistner (1993) wondered, Where does it lie – in the triumph of will, in grabbing for every expression of self that this world has to offer or in the calm dis cipline of self-denial for a higher picture of man? (267). Webster leaves the audience with an unsatisfactory portrait of free choice and the capacity for moral responsibility. The emergence in the 1580s of an Elizabethan tragic tradition which manipulated the limitations of classical generic boundaries points toward the developing self-consciousness of a modern culture. As evidenced in such works as Tamburlaine and The White Devil, the theatre was the site of an evolving culture in conflict with the older, traditional forms of expression. Marlowe, Webster and Heywood used the stage for the assertion and defense of an ego which †¦ was constantly threatened by powerful forces of desire and conscience, forces which [they] coped with as best as [they] could by making them conscious, by finding a form for them which would command social understanding and the control of shared social attitudes (Barber 37). The new tragic genre was a way of registering an experience of change and di slocation, a shift from the Classical tradition of moral order and stability. Works Cited Aristotle, (1953) Aristotle on the Art of Fiction: an English translation of Aristotles Poetics. Trans. by L. J. Potts. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press. Barber, C. L. (1988) Creating Elizabethan Tragedy: the theatre of Marlowe and Kyd. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Bowers, F. T. (1940) Elizabethan Revenge Tragedy 1587-1642. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Brown, J. R. (1962) Theater research and the Criticism of Shakespeare and his Contemporaries Shakespeare Quarterly, 13 Falco, R. (2000) Charismatic Authority in Early Modern English Tragedy. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. Goldberg, D. (1987) Between Worlds: A study of the plays of John Webster, Wilfrid Laurier University Press. Greenblatt, S. (1985) Invisible Bullets: Renaissance Authority and Its Subversion, Henry IV and Henry V in J. Dollimore and A. Sinfield, (eds.), Political Shakespeare: New Essays in Cultural Materialism , pp. 18-47. Manchester: Manchester University Press. - (1980) Renaissance Self-Fashioning: from More to Shakespeare. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Heywood, T. (1973) An Apology for Actors (1612). New York: Garland. (1961) A Woman Killed with Kindness. R. W. Van Fossen (ed). London: Mentheun Co. Kistner, A.L. and Kistner, M.K (1993) Free Choice in The White Devil English Studies, 74, no. 3: 258-267 Marlowe, C. (1993) Doctor Faustus. D. Bevington and E. Rasmussen (eds). Manchester: Manchester University Press. -(1995) Tamburlaine. D. Bevington and E. Rasmussen (eds). Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. Moretti, F. (1982) †A Huge Eclipse†: Tragic Form and the Deconsecration of Sovereignty, in The Power of Forms in the English Renaissance, S. Greenblatt (ed). Norman, Oklahoma: Pilgrim Books. Powell, C.L. (1917) English Domestic Relations 1487-1653. New York: Columbia University Press. Sidney, P. (1971) An Apologie for Poetrie. New York: De Capo Press. Webster, J. (1983) The Selected Play of John Webster. J. Dollimore and A. Sinfield (eds). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Manet and Paris De Refuses

Edouard Manet lived an intriguing life significantly changing world history, especially in the arts. In the 19th century, Salon De Paris hosted a yearly public exhibition of artists paintings approved by the board. Edouard Manet’s controversial and unexpected paintings became the biggest challenge and publicity for the salon, probably not in the way the Paris Des Salon would have chosen. All artists displaying exhibitions sanctioned by the show were required to paint within the standards and codes of conduct set by the French Art Academy; Academie des Beaux-Arts. Any artists refusing to follow educational guidelines were rejected from showing their paintings. Their work had to abide by the educational standards taught in the French school to show paintings in the Salon De Paris exhibition. Edouard Manet was not very accommodating to tradition, a rebellion for being discharged from the Navy. In 1862, the Salon De Paris rejected Edouard Manet’s painting, Luncheon on the Grass. This rejection started a series of events marking a turning point in the history of art. Manet’s and other young French artists who admired the impressionists art style challenged the salon’s decisions. Napoleon 111 opened an exhibition allowing the salon’s rejects to display their art. The event which was separate from Salon De Paris was named Salon des Refuses, meaning the salons rejects. At this time, it was not considered a high honor to have works displayed in the Salon des Refuses. Today, the artists who had their work showcase in the Salon des Refuses have the same notoriety and respect as artists who’s work was accepted by the Salon des Paris. Manets paintings were very pleasing, aesthetic, but were prevented from accepted by the public. It was the times they lived in. When they did reach the public, his paintings received harsh, vicious criticism. Manets paintings directly went against the erroneous purpose and rigid rules of academic art teachings. The academy had problems accepting Manets technique and subject matter, often portraying women with no clothes, two men in landscape or outdoor settings. All of his paintings were fully colored, not having any shadows in the pictures. The 1862 Salon Des Refuses lead to the Avant-Garde, which simply means testing the traditional rules or pushing beyond the boundaries. The rejection of Luncheon on the Grass, the opening of the Salon des Refuses and the Avant-Garde lead the movement of art world into Impressionism. Edouard Manet’s rebellion against military, education and politically correct standards through his paintings made more contributions than any one person ever did from any point in history. Manet and Salon Des Refuses Introduction: Edouard Manet was a French artists famous for inventing the entire impression era during his very short lived life, dying at only 50 years old. After his discharged from the military, he devoted his entire life to art. Through his art career, he inspired historical changes influencing all aspects of the artworld. Significant changes inspired by Manet influenced music, drama, theatre dance and paintings. In his brief lifetime, the impression class, the avant-garde and Salon des Refusal became fully developed legitimate organizations upon challenging Salon de Paris's rejection of his painting. Impressionism; According to the study of Manets style, impressionism is heavily associated with color. Manet is the mastermind behind the impressionism era. Manet’s breaking traditions began the impression age, but the impressionism era was marked when Monet created a painting called Sunrise. â€Å"The term impressionism was coined to describe the work of certain painters who professed to record the impression which they have received from the object studied. At close range, the picture appeared confused and intelligible; it was necessary to stand some distance away from it in order to discover what it was all about† (Forest, 1913, Page 584). Realism painters are very formal artists, concealing any individuality, uniqueness, identity or personality within the messages or storytelling in their artwork. The purpose of realism paintings are to retell historical events from the past. Up until Manets invention of the impression stage, artists created artwork to keep history alive, and relay the same historical messages in multiple different interpretations. Impressionism is a resemblance of the contrast between today’s Ballet dance vs Hip hop. The art does not have to follow narrow based rules and may be an expression of the individual to please the audience. Art is not required to be a reinvention of sentimental or historical meaning to serve a purpose, or target an audience. Art can be aesthetically pleasing. Aesthetic art work does not reinvent history, it makes history while keeping up with the current trends, Impression or aesthetic usually appeals to a younger generation, perhaps more common, everyday people. This type of art in music, dance, theatre is usually taken at face value, or for what it is. Impressionist’s artists paint in the here and now. They are not concerned about the future, or the past. Both an impressionists and realism artist create a piece of art or paint a picture of the same beach. Each artist would use different colors, shadowing methods, brush stroke techniques. Both beach paintings would show clouds in the sky. The picture painted by the impressionists would have shorter, broken up clouds, resembling exactly what the viewer would see if they went to that beach when the artist painted it. The impression artist goes to the place where he or she can see what they are painting or drawing. The realism artists paints outdoor scenery while they are in the studio. The clouds, sun, waves symbolizes a historical story. Impressionists uses brighter colors, place strong emphasis on natural outdoor lighting and the actual surroundings. Realism artists took pride in people staying spell bound by their work, to get the hidden meanings portrayed through symbology. Artists wants to take its audience into a deeper level, consuming their attention, leaving them with something they will remember, or even change their life. Artists intend on making lasting impressions on its audience. The salon wanted to maintain a certain status level of its customers. â€Å"Although Edouard Manet studied for six years with Thomas Couture, his painting style was primarily influenced by studying the old masters in the Musee de Louvre in Paris, particularly the works of Spanish painters, Bartolome Esteban Murillo, Jusepe de Ribera and most important Diego Velazquez† (Kramer, 2002). Today, it stands no secret Manet greatly admired Velazquez. The art traditions set by Manet was inspired by Velazquez. The Salon De Paris and the Academie des Beaux-Arts: The Salon De Paris was a highly prestigious well respected event organized by the Academie des Beaux-Arts. The Salon De Paris was made up of a board of highly qualified judges who analyzed paintings submitted by artists. The salon first concern was to ensure all paintings displayed in the show satisfied all requirements set by the French art academy. The academy wanted to retain a certain level of customers. The Salon De Paris, working closely with the Academie des Beaux-Arts had an obligation to honor Napoleon 111 regulations. Napoleon 111 was a French emperor having full rein of the school. When the salon rejected Edouard Manet’s Luncheon on the Grass, the salons authority was immediately questioned. The rejection of this painting, inspired Manet to go through a process beginning a series of events that permanently changed art. Manets impression paintings were new, introduced the unfamiliar. The Avant-guard is all about breaking boundaries, pushing limitations. Many musicians, singers and George Bush Jr and his cabinet are accused of pushing boundaries, only a compliment to them. Traditional paintings, or paintings following the academic standards retold history, suppressing their own ideas. The salon or the art academy tested artists imaginations and creativity. Artists were discouraged from inventing or painting any stories or ideas, or pictures just for an image of the picture itself. Artists were required to paint what already existed, or did at one time or another. Although they were retelling history, they faced the challenge of inventing original ways to tell the same story repeated thousands times through previous paintings, theatre, music and writings. If an artist was talented, had a great imagination, and was inspired strong enough by historical events, he was capable of creating orginal fascinating works which portrayed the same meaning. All artist before the impression era had to create their art to retell biblical and traditional stories. Any individual messages from the artists had to be within the traditional social standards passed on through many generations. The Salon Des Refuses: The Salon Des Refuses rejected Manets painting, Luncheon on the Grass, because the subject matter was considered indecent. Manet painted an out of shape naked woman having a picnic on the grass with two fully clothed men. Artists have used artist’s models, a naked person who sits in a pose for the artists to paint, since the beginning of art. In the realism stages, or if the naked model symbolized a historical time event, it was considered art. Naked models painted in a realistic setting were considered pornography content. The rejection of Luncheon on the Grass and Whistler’s, A White Girl, drew lots of complaints from the public and the French artists who supported Manet’s style. Napoleon made the decision to allow a public exhibition of the salons rejects. The event was separate from the Salon De Paris. The salon repeatedly rejected Manets paintings, yet he kept submitting paintings in the same aesthetic style. Many art historians argue Manets rejections were intentional. â€Å"Many scholars contend that Manets 1863 masterpieces Dejeuner sur l Herbe, Breakfast in the Grass and Olympia set the stage for modern evolution of modern art and the 1907 creation of Picasso’s Demoiselle D Avignon. Was this intentional? Artists and art historian Anderson believe it was, arguing that the French painter wished to challenge academic paradigms pertaining to both style and the substance of artworks submitted to the Paris Salon Jury† ( Lajos, 2005). Submission of artwork rejected over and over, and resubmission making no compromise to alter paintings to conform to academic standards indicates Manet had altered motives for submitting his work. A generous inheritance from his father allowed Manet the financial independence to break these traditional rules, and paint mainly for his own enjoyment. Of course, the reason behind repeated submissions to the salon, if any, can only be left to individual opinions. The salons refusal to accept his paintings are narrowed down to one issue; The prestigious Salon des Paris and the academy had no way of foretelling publics reactions to acceptance of art that have not been tested. It was a political risk for the salon. Through most of Manets life, he was ridiculed, criticized, received harsh psychological attacks from the public. The attitude of the people says much more about people in general than Manets paintings. People rejecting Manets paintings wrote books about his artwork. Any painting, no matter how unappealing, does not have the ability to leave the gallery and harm these people who were so angry with the paintings. People are obsessed with the things they hate. One critic wrote a book about the impressionist artists titled â€Å"In Praise of Cosmetics. † Her theory was that Manets use of color with several paintings featuring naked women reflected prostitutes. Cosmetics are viewed as artificial, something a woman uses to seduce a man. This is seldom true, but cosmetics are often viewed in this light. The salon certainly did not want to offend activists involved in women’s rights movement, who concluded Manets paintings branded women as prostitutes. The content or the objects Manet drew was found objectionable by the salon. Many of his paintings showed a woman with no clothes with two men, outdoors. This is what the public was concerned about, not the coloring content, although it was used as a reason for rejection. They did not want to bring attention or focus to the naked women. Manet could argue that art used naked women in the renaissance ages. Other analysts interpret Manets paintings as a rebellion surfacing from his discharge from the military. He is leaving no room in his interpretations through the use repeatedly criticized color, light and atmosphere, he is protesting against anything standing for tradition, military or academic. He is telling everyone he is not following the current rules for art, and has no intentions to do so, he is still going to produce paintings by his own rules. Manet could never see himself wearing his uniform through a painting. He expressed respect and admiration for the uniform, but could not actually picture himself in the uniform. Manet had respect for the salon and the academy, but just could see himself in the academy. Through the art work and relationship with the Salon des Refusal, or Salon des Paris, he was living out his life experience with the military discharge. (Wright 2004). The more the public ridiculed Manet, the more controversial his paintings became. This was intentional. After a while of being ridiculed, mocked and harassed, the target begins to do whatever it takes to kept the reactions going. If anything, they are talking about his paintings the most. Whatever people hate, is the one thing that has them enslaved. Everyone is obsessed with whatever it is they hate or despise. Salon Des Paris Biggest Change: Salon Des Paris became the center of everyone’s concerns when its opposing event, Salon Des Refuses 1863 occurred. The Salon Des Refuses received publicity because of what it did not accept. (Wynford, 1904). The Salon Des Paris had a long term relationship with Manet. In 1859, Manet sent his first painting to the salon, The Absinth Drinker, the salon rejected it. The next two paintings, a double portrait of his mother and father and the Spanish Guitar was not only accepted by the salon, but highly honored. From here on out, the Salon and Manet continuously rebelled against each other. The only other honor the Salon would give Manet was a year before his death. In 1861, the salon refused another submission by Manet; Music at the Tuileries. Music at the Tuileries was more than just another painting for Manet. He set a new trend called en plein air, which the recently rejected painting was to be a trademark or signature of Manets original painting style. (1904) En plein air, translating to, in plain air, is the standard technique used by impression artists. Impression artists are famous for painting landscapes and outdoor painting. They paint from outside the studio. The realism artists painted landscapes and outdoor paintings. They used neutral, down to earth tones, grey, shades and colors. Impressionists use colors closer to giving actual visualization of the outdoor brightness. The background of their paintings actually set the coloring, usually daylight or moonlight, overlooking the entire picture. The impression artists did not paint many small details. The impressionists painted with what they imagined the audience saw when looking at the picture at first glance. The paintings make an impression at first glance. And needless to say, en plein air painting trend broke all traditional rules of painting. Manet replaced shadows, greys, blacks and other neutral colors with bright colors. All of the space on the canvas was filled with vivid contrasting colors. The Salon des Refuses in 1863 was a one time event. In 1865, the Salon des Paris discouraging another Salon des Refuses allowed all artists to display their exhibitions. They had another surprise. Manet shocked them once again with his painting, The Olympia. The very next exhibition, the Salon nonapologetically, nonsympathetically, without much consideration refused Manets paintings. (1904) Conclusion: At the very end of Manets life and career, his artwork and contributions were accepted, and honored. Edourd Manet 1832-83) was a French artists famous for inventing the entire impression era, during his very short lived life, died at only 50 years old, he inspired historical through his art career in all aspects of the art world. Significant changes inspired by Manet influenced music, drama, theatre dance and paintings. In his brief lifetime, the impression class, the Avant-garde and Salon des Refusal became fully developed legitimate organizations when he challenged the Salon des Paris's rejection of his paintings. The Salon des Paris did rejected works to uphold a certain class of people. Educated people attracted to art look beyond the visual aspects, are taken into the storytelling of the art work to derive deeper meanings out of it. Aesthetics and Impressionism art, according to the art analyst of that time were going to attract people who take art at face value, such as viewing a nude person as porn, or some other inappropriate sexual interpretation. These types of people have little money, younger crowd and will find great humor in breaking into the gallery â€Å"just to get a naked picture. † The salon probably considered this possibility when rejecting Manets works. However, Manet would not have stood out like he does today if he did not receive continuous rejections from the Salon. Creating sexual artwork falling into grey areas is the fastest way for an artists to become famous. Famous means everyone is talking about that artists more than other artists. Many historians point to incredibly believable supporting evidence that Manet purposely seeked repeated rejections from the salon. The one time he made his mark in history, was not when he convinced Napoleon 111 to hold an exhibition of the salons rejects, but probably when he submitted a painting of the Olympia the year after the salon allowed an open exhibition, preventing another Salon des Refusal. Some professionals studying Manet and the Salon Des Refusal argue his secretive rebellion for his military discharge surfaced through his paintings. Manets works that were refused by the public and the salon worked for him. The salon could have came with any reason for continuous rejections, the technique or subject content. Manet was always seeking controversy, not every rejected painting from the salon was by accident. He created an entirely new art era, called the impressionism stage. Today, his rejected artworks hangs in the most prestigious of the art galleries.

Black Matters Essay

I must admit that this is the most challenging fruitful reading that I have ever endured. At first it was a drag, but once I took out my dictionary and got serious I begin to truly understand, accept and open my mind to a new learning experience. Black matters is a powerful statement, before reading I glanced at the title and it gave me pride. I thought to myself that black matters was a new meaning for my black people and standing up for what they believed in. Black matters means that my black people problems are equal to the white superior man or women. Black matters means that we the black race are the priority, we are important, we are not invisible and we do to matter. Toni Morrison, a strong African American woman, with a strong voice and many words. An author and editor: born February 18, 1931 in Lorain, Ohio; the first African American woman to receive Nobel Prize in Literature. I have heard students in my class refer to Morrison as a literature legend because of her most popular writings. I have never in life read or heard of Toni Morrison; however, my impression of her is charismatic, devoted, hardworking, strong will, expressive and much more. I look at her as a teacher and I believe that she practices what she preach. Her emotion in the passage was deep I sense anger, disappointment, and at some point fear. I also sense happiness to be able to inform. People all over the world would benefit from this particular writing because it expands literature from black prospective verses the ordinary expected. According to Brooklyn Academy, Morrison states that her ultimate goal is to â€Å"to restore the language that black people spoke to its original power†. Her intention in this piece is to take down the boundaries that limit African American literature to its people, not only us but she intends to broadcast it around the world for everyone to hear, see and understand. While planting the seed with a little imagination to draw a picture in our mind so we can better picture of African American adventure. It would take place without a big seen or drama it would just be food for thought for the African American race. I like when she says â€Å"my work requires me to think about how free I can be as an African American writer women writer in my genderized, sexualized, wholly racialized world. This is a very genderized, sexualized, wholly racialized world and throughout any career, the African American race will always be judged and challenged especially women. â€Å"American literature has been clearly the preserve of the white male views, genius, and power, those views, genius, and power are without relationship to and removed from the overwhelming presence of black in the united states†. This is totally not fair because they are only educating us from one prospective. They are leaving out our black genius people who have slaved and fought for our freedom. In their eyes W. E. B Dubois, Fredrick Douglass, James Baldwin, Alice Walker and many more do not matter. Let them tell it there is only one way and that is the white way. That is why are black children are uniformed and uneducated. That is why black history month is not longer celebrated in the schools today.

How The Partnership Law Has An Effect On The Other Partner...

The purpose of this assignment is to explain how the Partnership Law can be applied in a partnership agreement whether a partner’s actions have an effect on the other partner. The authority in Section 4 of the Partnership Act 1908 defines partnerships as â€Å"the relation which subsists between persons carrying on a business in common with to profit† (Partnership Act, 1908). The Act defines any agreement made between two people is considered to be a partnership as long as they both agreed to do business together with the purpose of making profit. Additionally, the partnership is also collectively called a ‘firm’ as stated in Section 7 according to the Act. Thus, the partnership between Art and Craft will be referred to as a ‘firm’ in this essay. For the purpose of clarity, the two questions will be referred to as Case I and Case II respectively and will be answered in two parts by applying principles stated in the Partnership Act namely; Section 8, Section 9, Section 39 along with its sub-sections, and common law cases that are relevant depending on the circumstances. The main purpose of this essay is to analyse the case in question and to justify whether or not the partnership is liable to the outside parties concerned and how the likelihood of the outcome affects the partnership’s obligations. CASE I: First of all, the legal question in Case I is to justify whether Craft’s action can bind the firm and his partner Art to the supplier. To consider whether the firm is liable,Show MoreRelatedSame Sex Marriage Essay1370 Words   |  6 PagesWhat are others doing? Canada is not the first country in the world to address whether and how to legally recognize same-sex unions. 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